Tourism in Sri Lanka Essay

Tourism in Sri Lanka Essay Sri Lanka is one of the most sorts for tourist destinations in the world. It is advantageously situated between West Asia and South East Asia has been a significant stop on the silk route. To express the richness, beauty and the intensity of affection: the visitors addressed the country as Serendib, Ceylon, Teardrop of India, Resplendent Isle, Island of Dharma, and Pearl of the Orient.(Lanka Facts, 2012). Today, visitors are welcomed to Sri Lanka to experience the nations glittering tapestry of culture, and the rich abundance of nature, so handsomely bestowed, and to give credence to the old adage that good things come in small packages. Its landscape orientation especially the Warm Sun kissed Beaches creates mix of opportunities which lead to the final holiday destination. The diversity of temperatures, vegetation and scenery grab a large sense towards Srilanka. It is a most demanding country for lovers of nature and wild life because tourism offers safaris, Treks, Nature walks and Camping that could be a marvelous experience for them. The entire island is swarming with birds and animals. And the animals like elephants and leopards are not scarce. Though foods are not much expensive: they are tasty and the people of the country are very friendly and helpful.This colourful collection act as an indicator of its richness. All requirements are equipped in the country and it is to be one of the best tourist destinations with absolute peace, political stability and the climatic changes can be seen through beautiful waterfalls, rivers, sceneries, tea estates and many other attractive places. Sri Lanka is owned for a rich heritage and it has a recorded history of more than 2500 years and archaeological sites over 250,000.There are 8 world heritage sites within the country that was approved by the UNESCO and they are the hill capital kandy, the sacred city of Anuradapura, The Dutch fort of Galle, The ancient city of Polonnaruwa, The rock fortress of Sigiriya, The golden rock temple of Dambulla, the beautiful Horton plains and the Singharaja rain forest (Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority, 2011). So, without a doubt a land like Sri lanka cannot be found because it has something to offer for everyone. The increase of tourism occurred in 2011 and is expected to climb further in the coming years. Colombo the capital city, the Cultural Triangle (Dambulla, Polonnaruwa and Anuradhapura), the cities like Kandy and Galle, and most of the southern beach towns which are equipped with good tourist facilities, the roads connecting many of those destinations are improving. The pro of Sri Lanka as a tourism destination is threefold. Firstly, it is a real tourism destination. Secondly, a tourist can travel the whole compact island within few days because it consists only 65,610 square km.Thirdly, it has unparalleled diversity of tourism product. For the ease of communicating the diversity of Sri Lanka in 2010, 8 different products namely; heritage, beaches, wildlife, mind and body wellness, scenic beauty festivals, Essence and sports and adventure are started to position around the country by the tourism authorities. (Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority, 2011). Art and culture, spices, tea, gems, handy crafts and its people are the unique features of Srilanka which are also known as the essence of the country. From the ancient time the travellers and the traders have attracted to Sri Lanka and it is a languorous tropical island of deep spirituality and serenity. Sri Lanka grabbed the Western imagination as the Tahiti of the East. 5.2.1 Institutional structure of tourism industry in Sri Lanka Tourism industry is under the Ministry of Tourism. Four sections of it are; Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority (formed in 2005 by replacing Sri Lanka Tourist Board which was established in 1966), Sri Lanka Tourism Promotion Bureau, Sri Lanka Institute of Hotel Management and Sri Lanka Convention Bureau. While Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority is responsible for all the tourism development activities, the responsibility of all the marketing and promotional work goes to the Tourism promotion Bureau. 5. 2.1 History of tourism industry in Sri Lanka Marco Polo mentioned the Sri Lanka as the finest isle in the whole world as a well-known explorer of the 12th century. For European Travellers it had been a immense tourism destination. (Lanka Facts, 2012). However, the year 1966 was a landmark for international tourism in Sri Lanka, with the enactment of the Ceylon Tourist Board Act No. 10 of 1966. The Act provided permission for the establishment of a public authority known as the Ceylon Tourist Board for encouragement, promotion and development of tourist travel to Sri Lanka (Deheragoda 1980). According to this Act, the Board objectives are numerous: establishment of an institute to control the tourist industry, to encourage people to provide an efficient, attractive and adequate service, the encouraging, promotion and development of the travel trade (Deheragoda 1980; Zoysa 1978). After the establishment of the Ceylon Tourist Board, the Sri Lankan tourist industry has systematically developed drawing much foreign exchange into the country (Handaragama, 2010). From 1966 onwards, the tourist industry gradually inherited results of many mentioned implemented programs for the development of the industry. In 1977 the tourist industry had full attention and support of the government with the introduction of open economic policies and liberalization of the economy, because it was quite a suitable field for the operationalisation of the open economic policies. The tourist industry is gradually developing and reached a milestone in 1983 with ethnic problem with its manifestations particularly in the forms of conflicts in the North and East and bomb explosions in Colombo, threatening the safety of the tourists (Bandara, 2003). According to ADB (1998), until the early 1980s 76 percent of tourism accommodation in the country is owned and forced by the Hotel Corporation (a semi-privatized formerly state owned body).During this era (between mid-1960s and early 1980s) as a result of the state investments, the tourism accommodation facilities expanded. However, with the introduction of liberalized economic policies in 1977, significant amounts of national and international investments were made to construct the accommodation of tourism, mainly in Colombo and the Southwest coast which ultimately lead to control the large part of the inbound tourist market by the private sector. (Sri Lanka, Tourist Boar d, 2003). Growth of the tourism industry got stagnated because of the 30 year long internal conflict and terrorism which caused a negative impact on tourism. With the end of the conflict in 2009, created a lot of opportunities through tourism industry. (Agency for Technical Cooperation and Development, 2011). Sri Lanka had an expansion of 46% in tourism arrivals in 2010 just after the end of the war. The tourism arrivals got doubled from 2009 to 2011 with the number of arrivals attaining 855,975 as at end 2011(Figure 5.2). In 2012, Sri Lanka was named as the best valued destination for holidays by the post office worldwide holiday costs barometer. 5.2.2 Present situation of Sri Lankan tourism United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) lists Sri Lanka with a 50 percent growth in tourist arrivals among 77 countries that have reported international arrivals data. So that, the year 2011 has been a significant year for tourism industry as the arrival target was over 750,000. Sri Lanka recorded 856,000 tourist arrivals with a 30 percent annual growth at the end of 2011and also expects 30 percent growth as well in this year because the country has performed well compared to the world tourism industry. The sector envisaged 30 percent growth for 2011 with revenue of US $ 839 million (Ref). The hotel occupancy rate has increased up to 77 percent and it has created employment for about 125,000 persons. Compared to other industries it has the fastest growth prospects. Though Sri Lanka is predominantly a beach destination, it could offer culture, nature, agro, community, religious and spiritual attractions by now. Thirty year ethnic conflict of the country has been negatively affected for the growth and the development of the tourism industry (Ganegodage and Rambaldi, 2012). Sri Lankan government is now organizing several events and is in the process of developing the industry in order to make Sri Lanka a top tourism destination in the world. The Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority will do their best to develop unique, quality and diverse tourism products and services that would globally make Sri Lanka as a unique destination. Identifying and developing tourist specific unique products and services, formulating and implementing Tourism Development Guidelines, facilitating and implementing the legal and administrative process for new product and service development are some activities done by the authority. (Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority, 2011). Main markets of tourism in Sri Lanka Table 5.2 and Figure 5.4 shows a detailed account of the source of foreign visitors to the top 10 source nations the top ten source markets for tourism to Sri Lanka within the years 2010 and 2011. Sri Lanka relies greatly on Western European markets, especially the United Kingdom and Germany who rotate between second and third place as key source nations. However, India became the largest single source of arrivals in Sri Lanka. During this period, France, Maldives, Australia, Canada USA, the Netherlands and Russia also have become strong source markets. (Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority, 2011). When tourist arrivals are analyzed by regions, in 2010 and 2011, most of the tourists are from Asia and the Western Europe. Next highest number is coming from Middle East followed by Eastern Europe and North America (Figure 5.4). Thus, these are the important markets of tourism of the country. Main tourist attractions of Sri Lanka Sri Lanka has a large number of tourist attractions for different types of visitors. Bentota, Beruwala, Hikkaduwa, Galle, Negombo and Trincomalee are the dominant beaches in Sri Lanka and they are famous for relaxing, sun bathing and surfing. The living heritage of Sri Lanka of 2500 years was discovered by the culture heritage. It was founded in the 5th century BC, when the Buddhism was first introduced to the island. Anuradhapura can be recognized as the capital city of Buddhism. The oldest living tree in documented history is the sacred Bo tree, grown from a sapling of the tree under which the Buddha attained enlightment.(Lanka Facts, 2012). Sigiriya the 8th Wonder of the World. Veddhas also known as aborigines of Sri Lanka.They are the Sri Lankas indigenous people.Wildlife is a vital assert. Animals such as Elephants, Leopards, Black Bears and many more can meet face to face with Jungle wildlife sanctuaries. Nature Witness the unmatched bio-diversity of Sri Lanka is waterfalls, misty hills, breezy mountains and Sinharaja Rain Forest. Sinharaja is a world heritage named by United Nations. The World Tourism Organization describes that Sri Lanka has the advantage of having 49 sites classified as unique attractions, 91 as rare attractions, and 7 world heritage sites, and 6 of the 300 ancient monuments in the world. (Asia-planet.net, 2012). Purposes of visiting the country by tourists The main purpose of visiting the country by tourists is to have pleasure. During vacations, most of the tourists come to the country to engage in various entertaining activities such as visiting beaches for swimming surfing, boating, fishing, jungle tracking for rock climbing, hiking, wild life seeing , bird watching, and so on. Therefore, it is very important to provide facilities for these activities at the best level. However, tourist coming for business, visiting friends and relations, religious and cultural activities are comparatively lower (Table 5.2). 5.2.3 Future development of the sector There are 2 stages of the future tourism development in Sri Lanka. First stage is to be reached in 2016 and the second is in 2020. The main goal of the first stage is to attract 2.5 Million high spending foreign tourists by the year 2016 (Figure 5.5) and the main target of the second stage is to get 4 million tourists to the country (Figure 5.6). Tourism targets during 2010-2016 The five year master plan prepared by the Department of National Planning for the period of 2011 2016 tackle a range of issues related to Sri Lanka Tourism Strategy including environmental, economic, social, cultural, institutional and promotional aspects together with their mutual relations with the National Development agenda, in order to create a favourable environment to achieve expected tourist proceeds by 2016 (Department of National Planning, 2010). The key objectives to be achieved by the 5 year strategy are  ®Increase tourist arrivals from 650,000 in 2010 to 2.5 Million by 2016.  ®Attract USD 3,000 Million with 5 years of time as Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) to the country.  ® Tourism related employment increase by125, 000 in 2010 to 500,000 by 2016 and island widely expand tourism based industry and service.  ® Integrate tourism to the real economy by distributing the economic benefits of tourism to a larger cross section of the society.  ® Increase Foreign exchange earnings from USD 500 Million in 2010 to USD 2.75 Billion by 2016.  ®Contribute towards getting better global trade and economic linkages of Sri Lanka.  ® Position Sri Lanka as the worlds most precious island for tourism. (Department of National Planning, 2010) Tourism targets during 2010-2020 The vision of the government is to change the Sri Lankan tourism sector, by 2020, to be the biggest foreign exchange earner in the economy and to position Sri Lanka as the worlds most treasured and Greenest isle and draw high spending tourists while protecting the cultural values, natural habitats and environment of the country. Tourism development in the country: provincial level Provinces are the first level administrative division in Sri Lanka. In 1833, they were firstly established by British rulers of Ceylon. Then in the next century most of the administrative functions were transferred to the second level administrative division which is known as districts. Because of increasing demand for decentralization, in 1987 this change was done. In 1978 Provincial councils were established by the Constitution of Sri Lanka (Mongabay.com, 2012). Presently the nine provinces are named as Central, North Central Eastern, North Western, Northern, Sabaragamuwa, Uva and Western Southern (Figure 5). Ministry of tourism develop and manage tourism activities in each and every province because of the decentralization of the power. In line with the tourism development of the national government, provincial councils have development tourism master plans and implemented them during 2010-2016. Most of the tourism development programs of these provinces are mainly focused on rural tourism and niche markets such as nature tourism, ecotourism, culture tourism, agritourism in a sustainable way. Main aim of these tourism development programs is community empowerment and rural development. Motivation of local tourists Government expects to increase demand from domestic tourists, while planning to make additional foreign income to the country by providing facilities for foreign tourists to make additional foreign income to the country. Countrys total population is 21,283,913 (2011 estimated) and 0.934% is its growth rate is (2011 estimated). 14%from the total population is owned by the urban population (2010) and the annual urbanization changing rate is 1.1% (2010-15 estimated). Furthermore, age structure of the country is 0-14 years: 24.9%, 15-64 years: 67.2% and 65 years and over: 7.9% (2011 estimated) (Sri Lanka Demographics Profile, 2012. A positive background will be created in many ways in future because quantitatively and qualitatively local demand for tourism is rising. By using the print and electronic media government is trying to promote the less attractive places and grab the awareness which will help to fulfil the purpose of establishing a good culture among Sri Lankan travellers. (Dep artment of National Planning, 2012). When focusing the evolution of tourism industry in the country, there had been a flourishing period in the past. But, due to some bad experiences such as few youth unrest situations and revolutions, 1989-1992 a huge tsunami in 2004 and severe ethnic way during 2008-2009: the performance had gone down in the near past. However, recently, it is booming and the national government and the provincial councils have implemented lots of plans to get the optimum benefits of tourism in future.

Midterm 2 with Solutions Econ311

Intermediate Macroeconomics 311 (Professor Gordon) Final Examination Fall, 2009 YOUR NAME:________________________________ INSTRUCTIONS 1. The exam lasts 2 hours. 2. The exam is worth 120 points in total: 30 points for the multiple choice questions, 60 points for the analytical questions, and 30 points for the essays. 3. Write your answers to Part A (the multiple choice section) in the blanks on page 1.You won’t get credit for circled answers in the multiple choice section. 4. Place all of your answers for part B in the space provided. 5. You must show your work for part B questions. 6. Write your essays with a pen. Write clearly! 7. Good Luck and Happy Holidays! PART A (45 points) Choose the ONE alternative that BEST completes the statement or answers the question. Your answers must be in the space provided below. USE CAPITAL LETTERS. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | PART B (45 points) Please show your wor k and write down the formulas you use for partial credit. Question 1 (5 points) (a) What monthly rate of inflation causes the price level to increase by a factor of 5 (500 percentage points) over a year? (2 points) (HINT: Use the LN and EXP formulas from Chapter 9, Problem 2, further examples of which were presented in lecture on November 11). Using the log formula: p = 100*log(5)/12 = 13. 4%. b) If the rate of monthly inflation is 25%, by what factor would prices have risen over a year? (3 points) Let’s call the initial price level P0 and the price level at the end of the year P12 25 = 100*log(P12/P0)/12 P12/P0 = exp(25*12/100) = 20. Question 2 (10 points) Consider an economy where inflation expectations are given by the equation pet = . 4 pt-1 + . 6 pet-1 . Also assume that when the log of the output ratio increases by 1 points, inflation increases by 4 points. a) Write down the SP equation, both its general form and its specific form with these particular parameter assumpt ions inserted. (2 points) pt = pet + gYt-1 + zt = . 4pt-1 + . 6pet-1 + 4Yt-1 + zt ) Write down the DG equation (no need to derive anything, just write it down). (1 point) Y = Y-1 + [pic] – p c) Combine the SP and DG equations to express p as a function of pt-1, pet-1, Yt-1,[pic]t, and zt. (2 points) (HINT: Your answer must have p on the left side of the equation and terms not including current p on the right side, with all the relevant parameters inserted and solved out. ) p = 0. 4p-1 + 0. 6pe-1 + 4Y + z = 0. 4p-1 + 0. 6pe-1 + 4(Y-1 + [pic] – p) + z 5p = 0. 4p-1 + 0. 6pe-1 + 4Y-1 + 4[pic] + z p = 0. 08p-1 + 0. 12pe-1 + 0. 8Y-1 + 0. 8[pic] + z For the remainder of the problem, assume that in period t=1 the economy has values given by: p0 = 3pe0 = 3Y0 = 0 ) Suppose there is no supply shock in period 1 (z1 = 0) and that [pic]1 = 5. Solve for period 1 values p1 and Y1. (2 points) p1 = 0. 08(3) + 0. 12(3) + 0. 8(0) + 0. 8(5) + 0 = 4. 6 Y1 = 0 + 5 – 4. 6 = 0. 4 e) Sup pose instead that there is a period 1 supply shock that increases the value of z from 0 in period 0 to 1 in period 1. Find the period 1 values p1,[pic]1 and Y1 as well as the expected period 2 inflation, pe2, if the government adopts an accommodating policy. (3 points) Accommodating Policy means Y1 = 0, so from the DG equation p1 =[pic]1 and from the SP equation: p1 = . 4(3) + . 6(3) + 4(0) + 1 = 4 = [pic]1 pe2 = . 4(4) + . 6(3) = 3. 4 Question 3 (15 points)Consider a country whose Central Bank issued 100$ of High-Powered Money (H). Citizens' cash holdings (dollar bills) amount to 10% (. 1) of their deposits while each commercial bank has to have reserves for 15% (. 15) of the volume of deposits. a) What is the level of deposits? (2 points) D = H/(c+e) = 100/(. 1+. 15) = 400 b) What is the level of the Money Supply defined as dollar bills and deposits? (3 points) M = (1+c)D = 1. 1*400 = 440 c) Suppose the Central Bank wants to increase Money Supply to 528. How many extra units of Hi gh-Powered Money do they have to circulate? (4 points) M = (1+c) H / (c+e) 528 = 1. 1 H / . 25 H = 120 So they should print 20 extra units of H ) Assume now that the Central Bank still wants to set the Money Supply to 528 but the Government forbids them from printing High-Powered Money. What option is left to the Central Bank? (Hint: restrict your attention to this simplified model where there is nothing like direct lending or any other exotic policy) (2 points) Change the reserve requirement e) Given your suggested policy, which of the parameters of the model would they be changing? To which new value? (Remember that here H=100 and cannot be changed by assumption and M=528) (4 points) M=(1+c) H / (c+e) 528=1. 1 * 100 / (. 1 + e) e=. 1083 = 10. 8% Question 4 (15 points) Consider two nations, Richland and Poorland.Both nations have the same Cobb-Douglass production function, Y=AKbN(1-b). Let Poorland have an economy with technology level A=18, capital elasticity of production b=(1/3) , population growth rate n=. 13, capital depreciation rate d=. 07, and savings rate s=. 3 a) Rewrite the production function as a function relating Y/N and K/N. (2 points) Y/N = A(K/N)b = 2(K/N)(1/3) b) Solve for the steady state values of the capital-labor ratio (K/N) and per-capita GDP (Y/N). (6 points) s(Y/N) = (n+d)(K/N) sA(K/N)b = (n+d)(K/N) (K/N) = [sA/(n+d)]1/(1-b) (K/N) = [. 1*18 /(. 2)]3/2=27 (Y/N) = (n+d)(K/N)/s (Y/N) = (. 2)(27)/. 1=54 c) Richland has a per-capita GDP that is triple that of Poorland. Given hat Richland has the same production function as Poorland, the capital-labor ratio in Richland is what multiple of the capital-labor ratio in Poorland? (In other words, if Poorland has a capital-labor ratio of K/N= x and Richland has a ratio of K/N= y, what is y/x? ). (3 points) [pic] d) Compute the marginal products of capital in the two nations. (3 points) MPK = b(Y/N)/(K/N) MPKA = (1/3)(54)/(27)=2/3=. 6667 MPKb = (1/3)(162)/(729)=2/81=. 0247 e) Judging from your answ er in part (d), does the Solow model predict that poor countries have a higher or lower rate of return on capital? (1 point) The Solow model predicts a higher rate of return for poor countries.This is one of the critiques of the Solow growth model. PART C (30 points) WRITE YOUR NAME AND ID NUMBER ON YOUR BLUE BOOK. As stated on the syllabus (p. 3) and in numerous in-class and e-mailed reminders, you must write your answers in pen not pencil. This is a single multi-part essay question. You should write in your blue book for 30 minutes. 1. Write a coherent essay on the causes of the 2008-09 recession and on the policy responses to this event. Your essay should cover the following specific points a. First, establish the facts. What were similarities in the duration and magnitude of the 2001 recession and subsequent recovery as compared to the 2008-09 recession and recovery so far?Include comments on GDP, the GDP gap, labor market variables, and any other distinguishing features of thes e two episodes. b. What were the most important causes of the 2008-09 recession? Include comments on which causes were the same as in the 2001 recession, and which were different. c. In what sense, if any, did monetary or fiscal policy partially contribute to the causes of the 2008-09 recession? d. Evaluate the response of monetary policy since early 2008. What were the similarities and differences between this response and the monetary policy response to postwar recessions in 2001 and earlier? What aspects would you praise or criticize? e.Evaluate the response of fiscal policy since early 2008. What aspects would you praise or criticize? Multiple Choice Questions Make sure to write you answers on the blanks on page 1! 1. The current account includes all of the following except: A) net exports B) net income from abroad C) net unilateral transfers D) foreign direct investment 2. In what way was the international economy cited as a source of the U. S. housing bubble in 2003-06? A) che aper prices of imported building materials B) support of dollar by foreign central banks C) immigration of skilled foreign construction workers D) high pay of top executives of foreign investment banks 3.Which of the following were not cited in the course as a reason for France and other European nations to be reluctant to endorse an Obama-like fiscal stimulus for their own countries? A) high unemployment in Europe B) low fiscal multipliers C) social welfare system D) unemployment insurance system 4. Suppose we have an economy in which G = 1100, t = 0. 26, Y = 3800, and YN = 4000. At Y the difference between the actual deficit and structural deficit is A) 60. B) 112. C) -172. D) -112. E) 52. 5. The failure of U. S. net exports to improve dramatically in the mid 1980? s despite the weakening of the dollar suggests that A) U. S. industries supply of competitive goods was inelastic over the period.B) LDC debt repayment schedules and lack of financing kept U. S. exports low. C) NCIs mai ntained fixed exchange rates vis a vis the dollar and U. S. exports low. D) All of the above. 6. In the reading period assignments from the Economist, the United States is faulted relative to Europe and Japan for each of the following reasons except: A) labor and capital markets B) primary and secondary education C) personal saving rate D) infrastructure 7. In the reading period article about France, the French are praised for each of the following reasons except A) infrastructure B) household debt C) output growth rate D) medical care system 8. The mechanism of ? international crowding-out? s that a government budget deficit ________ the domestic interest rate, which makes the dollar ________ expensive for foreigners, which then ________ net exports. A) raises, less, lowers B) raises, less, raises C) raises, more, lowers D) lowers, less, lowers E) lowers, more, raises 9. Which of the following effects takes place as a result of automatic stabilization? A) extra tax revenues are gen erated in a boom. B) tax revenues remain constant during a recession. C) leakages increase during a recession, helping to stimulate the economy. D) Both A and C are correct. 10. If the Federal Reserve intervenes in the foreign-exchange markets and buys foreign currencies A) the U. S. oney supply rises and foreign currencies depreciate. B) the U. S. money supply falls and foreign currencies depreciate. C) the U. S. money supply rises and foreign currencies appreciate. D) the U. S. money supply falls and foreign currencies appreciate. 11. Activists-believe that AD is unstable because A) business and consumer attitudes and expectations shift. B) monetary policy is variable. C) fiscal policy effects are unpredictable. D) Both B and C are correct. 12. Assuming constant wages implies that A) an increase in the price of goods raises profits and SAS is vertical. B) a decrease in the price of goods lowers profits and SAS is horizontal.C) an increase in the price of goods lowers profits and S AS is vertical. D) an increase in the price of goods raises profits and SAS is positively sloped. [pic] 13. Consider the above figure with equilibrium initially at E0. If the money supply is increased and prices are flexible, in the short run prices and output will ___. In the long run output and prices will ___. A) be as at E2; return to E0. B) be as at E1; be as at E2. C) be as at E2; be as at E3 D) be as at E2; be as at E1. E) be as at E1; be as at E3. 14. According to the readings, a common feature of the Great Depression and the recent economic crisis was A) mortgage credit B) deposit insurance C) unemployment rate D) monetary policy 15.The sources of the current problems of running monetary policy are often cited as A) Quantitative easing B) Zero lower bound C) Excess bank reserves D) A) and B) E) B) and C) 16. An acceleration of nominal GDP growth from, say 4% to 6% will A) permanently raise the rate of inflation. B) temporarily lower the rate of inflation. C) leave real GDP unaffected in the long run. D) Both A and C. 17. The short-run Phillips Curve gives A) the actual short-run level of real GDP and inflation. B) all possible combinations of real GDP and inflation, for a given set of expectations. C) all possible combinations of real GDP and inflation, for fully adjusted expectations. D) the response of real GDP and inflation to supply shocks. 18.The Fed is criticized for the â€Å"one-way option† regarding asset bubbles. The criticism is that the Fed __________ when asset prices increase and __________ when asset prices decrease A) raises interest rates; lowers interest rates B) leaves interest rates unchanged; leaves interest rates unchanged C) raises interest rates; leaves interest rates unchanged D) leaves interest rates unchanged; lowers interest rates E) lowers interest rates; raises interest rates 19. Which of the following was not a source of the Great Moderation, according to the textbook? A) growth rate rule for money supply B) finan cial deregulation in late 1970s, early 1980sC) magnitude of supply shocks after early 1980s D) government military spending 20. In the short-run, the impact of an adverse supply shock is to A) reduce real GDP and leave the inflation rate unchanged if the growth of nominal GDP remains the same. B) reduce real GDP and leave the inflation rate unchanged if the growth of nominal GDP is reduced enough. C) maintain the same level of real GDP and reduce the inflation rate if the growth if nominal GDP is increased enough. D) All of the above. 21. According to the textbook, the main losers due to the redistributive effect of the postwar inflation in the United States were A) households. B) corporations. C) government. D) A) and B) 22. Disgruntled? workers who quit their jobs to find ? a more reasonable boss? are experiencing A) involuntary unemployment. B) mismatch unemployment. C) cyclical unemployment. D) turnover unemployment. 23. Policy solutions to mismatch unemployment include A) fisca l policies to raise the AD curve B) monetary policies to raise the AD curve C) policies other than fiscal and monetary policies D) accommodative policies to deal with supply shocks 24. Over a year, the money supply in a nation grew by 6 percent, while velocity rose by 2 percent and real GDP rose by 3 percent. This results in an inflation over the year of ________ percent. A) 5 B) 11 C) 1D) 7 25. The the Fed’s quantitative easing after mid-2008 is not described by A) increased open-market purchases of Treasury securities B) increased open-market purchases of private securities C) increased open-market purchases of corporate stock D) A) and B) E) A) and C) 26. Which of the following increased by the largest percentage between mid-2007 and mid-2009? A) excess bank reserves B) M2 C) high-powered money D) total bank reserves E) M1 [pic] 27. Initially, the economy is at point G in the figure above. An increase in per capita savings from s0 to s1 will in the short run result in ____ ____ and in the long run result in ________.A) excess per capita saving; more rapid growth in per capita output B) excess per capita saving; less rapid growth in per capita output C) more rapid growth in per capita output; more rapid growth in per capita output D) more rapid growth in per capita output; no change in the long run rate of growth in per capita output 28. Which of the following will not affect steady state per capita income in the Solow growth theory? A) The savings rate. B) The initial capital stock. C) The population growth rate. D) The production function. 29. The Solow growth model predicts that nations that are initially poor should have A) slower growth rates than nations that are rich. B) faster growth rates than nations that are rich. C) growth rates equal to those of nations that are rich. D) negative growth rates. 30.Two readings in the course packet for Chapter 11 cite a particular technological innovation for improved economic growth in poor tropical countri es. This is: A) television B) internet C) mobile phones D) new drugs to fight malaria 31. Several structural changes that occurred over the past two decades were a theme of lectures. Which of the following was not one of these changes? A) greater importance of structural unemployment and less importance of frictional unemployment B) smaller response of core inflation to oil price shocks C) larger decline of employment to declines in output in recessions D) larger increase of productivity to increase in output in recoveries E) More reliance on wage flexibility rather than layoffs in 2008-09 recession 32.In the Cobb-Douglas production function Y=AKbL1-b, the variable A has several different names. Which of the following is not one of them? A) autonomous growth factor. B) infrastructure. C) multifactor productivity. D) residual. 33. The formula for the growth rate of multifactor productivity is: A) a = y + bk + (1 – b)n. B) y = a + bk + bn. C) a = y – bk – (1 †“ b)n. D) y = a – b/k(1 – b)n. 34. Which of the following does not affect multifactor productivity? A) a tax on low-efficiency firms B) a higher saving rate C) Environmental regulation. D) Technological progress. 35. Relative growth rates of the standard of living in the United States and Europe indicate that workers in ________ have chosen to ? spend? _______ of their higher productivity on leisure rather than on consumption of market goods and services. A) Europe, a significant part B) the United States, a significant part C) Europe, almost none D) the United States, almost all 36. Which of the following would cause labor? s share of national income to decrease? A) Labor productivity increases less rapidly than the real wage rate. B) Labor productivity increases more rapidly than the real wage rate. C) Labor productivity has increased at the same rate as the real wage rate. D) Labor? s share of national income is not affected by the relative growth rates of labor p roductivity and the real wage rate. 37.Once monetary policy is dedicated to controlling the level of nominal GDP, then fiscal policy can be used to A) choose the overall level of interest rates, with a high budget surplus implying a high level of interest rates. B) choose the overall level of interest rates, with a high budget deficit implying a high level of interest rates. C) control the rate of inflation, with a high budget surplus implying a faster rate of inflation. D) control the rate of inflation, with a high budget deficit implying a faster rate of inflation. 38. A major side-effect of a stimulative fiscal policy is that it will A) discriminate in favor of housing. B) crowd out private expenditures.C) increase the natural rate of unemployment. D) permanently raise the rate of inflation. 39. Which of the following was a policy of Roosevelt’s New Deal which is not a part of the Obama stimulus package? A) tax reductions B) infrastructure improvements C) Direct interventi on to stop financial institutions from failing D) Federal government direct hiring of the unemployed 40. The Barro-Ricardo Equivalence Theorem assumes all of the following except: A) Individuals value the welfare of their heirs as much as their own welfare. B) Interest rates will remain constant. C) All individuals have children D) Markets for consumer housing and durable goods are perfect. 41.Which of the following will cause the date that the Social Security trust fund runs out of money to be pushed further into the future? A) A decrease in the rate of real GDP growth. B) An increase in the population growth rate. C) A decrease in the growth of the real wage. D) All of the above. 42. A fixed money-supply rule will have the greatest stabilizing effect on output when A) money demand is unstable and commodity demand is stable. B) both money and commodity demand are unstable. C) both money demand and commodity demand are stable. D) the velocity of money is unstable. 43. M1 is a defini tion of money largely confined to which function(s) of money? A) unit of account B) store of valueC) medium of exchange D) B and C. 44. In the empirical validation of the theory of the political business cycle discussed in lecture, which of the following variables measured over the year before the election has been the best predictor of the outcomes of presidential elections? A) the unemployment rate B) the inflation rate C) the growth rate of per capita real GDP D) the level of the federal government fiscal deficit 45. In the empirical validation of the theory of the political business cycle discussed in lecture, which of the following elections is a clear outlier as violating that empirical evidence? A) 1932 B) 1936 C) 1972 D) 1992 E) 2000

How Nikola Tesla Impacted the World Essay - 1249 Words

How Nikola Tesla impacted the world Have you ever relaxed on the beach while sitting back and listening to the radio? If you have, then you were using a device created by the renowned scientist Nikola Tesla. Nikola Tesla was a Croatian scientist of the late 1800s who worked closely with Thomas Edison and who, regardless of his lack of education, created over seven hundred different inventions throughout his life. Tesla was born in the Croatian Military Frontier, currently known as Croatia, on July 10, 1858. Tesla went to college for engineering at a Austrian polytechnic school. Although tesla did not finish college and dropped out of two universities without completing a single year he was still an avid reader and he is thought to have†¦show more content†¦During his research in the company Tesla found something called an alternating current. This finding led to the â€Å"war of currents† which was between Edison and Tesla. The battle was between alternating currents and direct currents, it was a argument between edison who owned the direct current and tesla who owned the alternating current. In the end the most favorable current was alternating current, which is still used in today’s world, it is what powers house and leads the electricity from power plants to houses. Teslas research and inventions are very impacting on society today. Everyday we use radios, televisions, lights, electricity. Tesla was a man dedicated in the science of electricity. Nikola invented a coil called the Tesla Coil which converted low power electricity into high power; It allows wireless energy. What sent him to make this coil was the thought of wireless communication. The coil is used in televisions, radios and air conditioning. In the 1890s Tesla created a basic design for a radio. Tesla invented the fluorescent light and neon lights. Teslas goal was to create the same amount of frequency that the sun gives off. The amount of Teslas Inventions is unknown b ut he is believed to have had made more than 700 inventions. In the 1900s Teslas work started moving towards x-rays, and electromagnetic energy. Tesla wrote â€Å"Ere many generations pass, our machinery will be driven by a power obtainable atShow MoreRelatedTesla s Invention Of The Second Industrial Revolution1677 Words   |  7 Pages Nikola Tesla, an important inventor and contributor to America, once said, â€Å"I don t care that they stole my idea . . I care that they don t have any of their own.† Tesla spent his whole life having ideas stolen away from him by other inventors, but he ignored this and continued to work on his own. He was such an important contributor to American inventions that many people today call his inventions the majority of the Second Industrial Revolution. His inventions were used not only around the timeRead MoreAnalysis Of Mark Twain s The Gilded Age1671 Words   |  7 PagesTwain would be the one to know of the wonders and friction of ideas and people. His friend Nikola Tesla, the eccentric Serbian scientist, had major involvement in the peaks and troughs of this era. In fact, Nikola’s dilemma with another great contemporary of his even has its own name: the War of the Currents. The War of the Currents is a distinct series of events that occurred during the Gilded Age. Nikola Tesla battled Thomas Edison’s scientific and entrepreneurial ideas. Their ambitions led to wondersRead MoreThe Great Men And Women893 Words   |  4 Pages Of those great men and women to contribute to the progression of the human species, many have stressed the importance of thinking for one’s self. These giants understood how easy it is to succumb to a herd mentality and also realized that it is just as possible for only one person to be right as it is for a population, sometimes even more so. I consider this oft lonely position to carry with it a sort of intellectual bravery; this person understands the difficulty and temporal cost of taking upRead Moremen who built america1112 Words   |  5 Pagesproblems having an attempt of his own life. The three key things I found in this video is about how J.P. Morgan grew up his objectives that he grew up on, like the way his dad had treated him why he was growing up. Another key point I found was how Morgan had decided to work with Thomas Edison and the benefits of working with him. The last key point I found was how Thomas Edison had turn down Nikola Tesla, then Tesla could be bette r than Edison. J.P. Morgan was I like to say mistreated during his childhoodRead MoreEffect Of Smartphones On Advertising1241 Words   |  5 Pagesdramatically changed the way consumers are approached by advertising companies. Before we can understand how smartphones have changed the advertising industry, we must first recognize that advertising and smartphones were not always related. By answering the following two question, it will further examine the effect of smartphones on advertising. How have smartphones impacted the advertising industry? How effective advertising on smartphones is? Background of advertising Before I can explain the effectsRead MoreSector Briefing : Dtl Power Corporation7811 Words   |  32 Pagesor can easily be replenished, such sources are solar, wind and water to name a few. Commercial electric generation came about in the late 19th century and was driven by industry. The demand for electricity was significantly increased in the post- World War II era (Smithsonian Institution, 2002 . With this demand came private companies that had created independent systems soon realized that interconnecting their systems with each other resulted in a more efficient system (Institute for Energy Research

Middle School And High School - 1742 Words

Middle school and high school were very different for me. Both schools lack diversity and consisted of people just like me, but in middle school everyone’s identity were practically the same. I attended Catholic school until high school and had all white classes until then too. Throughout middle school I was a rather mischievous student who did not place academics too highly on my list of priorities, so I was often making the teacher’s job much harder than it needed to be. If not for how involved my family and I were with the church and the school my in class experience would not have been as pleasant. The only way that we ever learned about our own identity was through religion classes and through church so the fact that the entire school probably had less than five students of ethnicity in a school with grade 3-8 in it was never addressed. In middle school almost everyone was middle class or at least were not struggling like some of the families in more urban areas. I f a family did begin to struggle enough financially they simply went to another school because the cost of Catholic school was no longer a luxury that they could afford. So the school not only consisted of people with the same race but also eliminated people that were not from the same economic background. In high school the majority of students were white as that is 92% of the student body and I was not a minority in anyways but it was much different due to how extreme my middle school experience was inShow MoreRelatedThe High School Of Middle School Essay1179 Words   |  5 Pagesbelieve â€Å"ignorance is bliss† while others believe it is better to know everything. If I had continued the last month of my seventh grade year in ignorance, I would of been better off. Seventh grade, the middle of middle school. Some people did not like middle school at all, personally I loved middle school, especially seventh grade. The reason seventh grade was this magical year is simple a b oy was talking to me. Not just any boy, a boy with beautiful amber brown eyes, fluffy brown hair and one of theRead MoreHigh School And Middle School1458 Words   |  6 PagesThe junior high school and middle school is basically the same thing. Today we still have junior high schools but the mostly named that way because of the historically context. Looking at my notes taken from this year, middle schools span from 6 th to 8 th grade, the schedule is flexible and block depending on the class. Teachers have interdisciplinary teams and they work together as a grade level instead of working on common classes they teach. Lastly in the middle school, everyone is a teamRead MoreHigh School And Middle School Essay1614 Words   |  7 PagesAs you enter freshmen year you will immediately notice the differences between high school and middle school. Change will be inevitable. With a new building to explore, new faces in the halls, and a new schedule to memorize nothing will be the same. Most importantly, the biggest change you will notice will be the change within yourself. Transitioning from middle school to high school means growing, it means taking risks and stepping outside of your comfort zone. How you change will depend on yourRead MoreThe Middle School And High School Essay1060 Words   |  5 PagesAlmost all people have gone through it and know the difficulties and challenges of being a freshman in high school. Not only do freshman skills and attitudes grow before your eyes, but their bodies also morph so quickly that you barely even recognize your students by the end of the year (Donegan, 2008). The review of literature has shown that the transition from middle school to high school is extremely difficult in all facets of a teenager’s life. Freshman students are challenged academicallyRead MoreMiddle School And High School881 Words   |  4 Pagesin 5th grade because the teachers thought it was best for me to get all the help I needed now ins tead of struggling in the future. When middle school and high school arrived, I remember being excited to see what what different books we were going to read each year or what exciting things we were going to be writing about. My all-time favorite book from high school was, and still is, Joseph Conrad’s, Heart of Darkness. Now that I’m in college I recognized that I loved my English classes because I lovedRead MoreGraduation Speech : School, Middle School And High School870 Words   |  4 PagesGrammar school, middle school, and most high schools share one thing in common; they offer the same basic history, math, English, science, and social science course. By the time high school comes around students have already learned the same things again but only this time it is harder and more in depth. College becomes a time that a student really begins to learn about what they want to do with the rest of their lives. When applying to college, applicants don’t apply to learn math, English, historyRead MoreDrug Testing For High Schools And Middle Schools1301 Words   |  6 PagesPersuading kids to not do drugs is a tough subject to approach as parents and teachers. When it comes to kids being unhappy, they will more than likely hear that drugs bring happiness to them. With drug testing involved in high schools and middle schools. The students should see that it is no longer an option to do drugs in order for their own self happiness. Students can result to other options that are more acceptable to society, and not to mention activities that are legal. Although these kidsRead MoreHigh School / Middle School Science Teacher862 Words   |  4 PagesI want to be a high school/middle school science teacher. I want to teach kids, to show them that the world is their playground. That they can do anything and everything they put their little, bright, energetic minds too. Education is the world I’m putting myself into. I’ve known since I wa s four that wanted to work with kids, so teaching was the. I get to show them a whole new world full of advantage, and excitement. I get to see them make connections, to make that jump from the norm, inside theRead MoreThe Transition Through Middle School And High School890 Words   |  4 Pagesunexpectedly as it does. The transition through middle school and high school has changed me thoroughly. I’ve learned that high school has made me smarter for who to trust and judge people more than I usually do. High school gave me more options, viewpoints, and ideas. I mature in almost every way, and learn more about myself for what I’m good at. There will be hard times but eventually get through them. It started when I was a freshman in high school. It was a 10-minute walk from my house. I gotRead MoreThe Transition between Middle School and High School1748 Words   |  7 Pagestransition between middle and high school; many make it through this transition. I apparently, wasn’t good enough for that transition, and I didn’t get in. I also didn’t even apply for the spot, so this not getting in thing made no sense to me on the first day. However, later on, I discovered that it mattered a lot more than I had first thought. Mostly because it basically sealed my fate for the rest of my life. Suffice to say, I am the single unluckiest person in this whole school. Unrivaled by anyone

My paper starts out talking about one of the most...

My paper starts out talking about one of the most well-known playwrights of his time, William Shakespeare, William Shakespeare is known for his well-developed and successful plays. Shakespeare wrote over 37 stories in his life time. Shakespeare’s birth isn’t recorded anywhere. Scholars that have studied Shakespeare have narrowed it down within a three day radius. Back in England were Shakespeare was from they went by a â€Å"Book of Common prayer†, this book was like the Bible of the time period. Everyone abided by this book for everyday circumstances. In The Book of Common Prayer, it states that when a child is born it is required to be baptized on the nearest Sunday or â€Å"Holy Day† following the birth. Shakespeare was recorded to of been†¦show more content†¦A period known as the Lost Years. In 1581 William Shakespeare meets Anne Hathaway. William begins to fall in love with Anne, he asks Anne to marry him and Anne says yes .In November of 1582 The Bishop of Worcester issues a marriage license to William Shakespeare and Ann Hathaway, officalizing the marriage of 18-year-old William Shakespeare and 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. In May of 1583, only 6 months after the marriage, Shakespeare is blessed with a baby girl. On May 26th Anne gives birth to their first child, Susanna, She then was baptized shortly afterwards. Not very long after the first child, in 1585 Shakespeare is blessed with 2 more children, and yes they were twins. Son Hamlet and daughter Judith were born on June 15th 1585. Shakespeare names the children after 2 of his good friend’s hamlet and Judith Sadler. In 1590, Shakespeare starts to establish himself as a playwright, putting long hours and most of his time in his writings. Around this time, Shakespeare writes Henry VI, Part One. Shakespeare’s very first play. Like all of Shakespeares plays the date that the play was published is not certain, Also around that time period Shakespeare leaves Stratford, his home town, and goes to London to start his life as a playwright. In 1592, A Famous Playwright, Robert Greene writes a insulting letter about Shakespeare, calling him an upstart crow who doesnt belong withShow MoreRelatedA Research Study On Research1173 Words   |  5 PagesThe research topic is selected, the testable research question is developed, research on the topic is found, the literature review is completed, and a decision is made on the research design. Now, one of the most important steps in the research process to accomplish is the collection of data. Notwithstanding the research project and whether the method of research is whether qualitative or quantitative, data must be collected. Data collection is essential whether the method of choice is a mailRead MoreResearch Methodology For The Research1255 Words   |  6 PagesCHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Introduction In doing the research, the methodology must be appropriate so that the analysis findings could reach the objective. Research methodology proposed one procedure in order way to be follow to answer all the questions in the research that want to be made. Quoted by Denzin and Lincoln (1994), methodology is a process that related with research objective and data. In the others word, it is early research planning that include the research scope, data collectionRead MoreResearch Methods And Methods Of Research975 Words   |  4 PagesStudying research method was not a new experience since I have studied about it in my under graduate school. 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Review the literature- Locate resources, i.e.; books, journals, electronic resources; select resources-determine the relevant resources for the topic; organize; Summarize the resources in a literature review (Creswell). 3. Specify a Research Purpose – Identify the purpose statement-theRead MoreResearch Design For Criminological Research931 Words   |  4 PagesCritically assess the use of ‘triangulation’ in research design for criminological studies. There has been an emergence in the use of triangulation in criminological research, in a bid to combine two methods to ensure the validity of the research. As a result, the use of triangulation is recommended as good practice for any criminological research (Maruna 2009); as no single method can produce a comprehensive account of the study under research (Bryman 1988). In spite of its reported success, theRead MoreA Research Study On Experimental Research892 Words   |  4 PagesExperimental research is sometimes done with risk of harming the subjects under study. In a research study, participants could be physically and emotionally harmed. As nurses, we are advocates for our patients. Therefore, our goal is to protect them from any harm and discomfort when they participate in experimental treatment. Many dilemmas arise when trying to determine the level where an experimental treatment becomes harmful. In the past, researchers conducted unethical experiments without theRead MoreEval uation Of A Research And Qualitative Research852 Words   |  4 Pagesof a Research Designed Process and how researchers use this process. A research process is an iterative process which is complex, is always back and forth when it comes to a process, this process never ends. This process goes two ways there is a Quantitative research and a Qualitative Research. The first way that I will talk about will be the Quantitative Research. The way that Literature is defined in the research process is as an assessment of a body of research that addresses a research questionRead MoreA Research Paper On The Quality Research906 Words   |  4 PagesThe reason this book is being reviewed is because this was one of our textbook for our book review. This book was for our class to understand how to write a research paper in higher standard. The Quality Research Papers is written by Nancy Vyhmeister has forty-five years of experience in teaching future pastors and professors throughout the world. She continues to have a global ministry in her retirement years, mostly teaching and writing. She also has authored several books, both in Spanish and

Manufacturing Beauty Free Essays

Manufacturing Beauty Manufacturing Beauty Cindy Jackson in my opinion has major issues. She thinks beauty is on the outside and does whatever she can to make herself look like an imaginary person. It seems to me that she is doing all this to try to make money. We will write a custom essay sample on Manufacturing Beauty or any similar topic only for you Order Now Her website is all about selling cosmetics. In which I am betting she doesn’t even use herself, because if there is a flaw in her mind she corrects it with surgery, so why does she need cosmetics? I think that her self-esteem is still extremely low even after all the surgeries and it has been from the start. The physical attractiveness of a person influences every individual throughout every community, across the United States and around the world. All people inherit and alter their physical attractiveness, which is determined by complex, interdependent, physical, and non-physical factors. Hidden and not-hidden values drive thoughts and actions with significant effects and realities whereby higher physical attractiveness is beneficial, lower physical attractiveness is detrimental and associated pursuits are relentless. Physical attractiveness may look skin-deep as a surface aspect of appearance, but looks can be deceiving. Researchers throughout the world collect empirical data complemented with anecdotal data to probe beyond the surfaces. Through investigations that meet meticulous scientific methodological procedures, acute observations reveal previously undetected dimensions that advance understanding about physical attractiveness (Patzer, 2006). I think the mass media has a huge influence on her. Even according her, she wants to look like Barbie â€Å"I looked at a Barbie doll when I was 6 and said, ‘This is what I want to look like. ’ She spent $100,000 on the operations because she ‘wanted to look better’, â€Å"Barbie was the blank canvas I filled in all those years ago. It was still my role model. † Cindy believed she was being ‘held back by her looks’ and that with surgery to make her more like her idol, she believes she is happier and has a better quality in life. Although this example is both rare and extreme, it is interesting to observe a woman’s behavior later in life, which so blatantly and clearly links her desire of appearance to a prototype presented to her as a child. (2009) I my opinion the theme of â€Å"Manufacturing Beauty† can mean several things. I think that for one and the main theme is that a person is doing everything they can to try to make themselves beautiful in everybody else’s eyes. This is impossible, because everybody sees beauty a different why. For instance, I might be attracted to a woman at first sight but after I get to know, I may not find her beautiful; because I think, beauty is on the inside and not the physical appearance. In conclusion, I do not approve of what she is doing but then I do not have to. I think she is giving young women a very bad influence. I wish young women would see that being different is a great thing and that looking like everybody else is very boring. References (2009). Living Doll. Retrieved from http://blamingthemedia. blogspot. com/2009_09_01_archive. html Patzer, G. (2006). The Power and Paradox of Physical Attractiveness How to cite Manufacturing Beauty, Papers

Differential Fertility free essay sample

Table 1. 1 : Demographic Profile of Bishnupriya Manipuri, Cachar District, Assam. Population size Male 958 (51. 51%) Female902 (48. 49%) Sex Ratio941 (female per thousand male) Total no of household254 Average no of member per household7. 32 Child Dependency Ratio34. 10 Old Dependency Ratio. 08 Total Dependency Ratio34. 18 Crude birth rate32. 79 Total fertility rate3. 37 Average completed fertility per women3. 57 General fertility rate105. 90 1. INTRODUCTION Fertility : The actual reproductive performance, (Bhende and KanitKar, 2001) ; the actual occurrence of births, especially live births (Cox 1959) Is a true dependent genetic concept. Fertility, a major component of population growth occupies an important place in population study. Fertility though a biological phenomenon is often influenced by number of social, economic and cultural factors and as a result we come across fertility differentials from population to population. Fertility is regarded as an instrument for perpetuation of human society and one of the basic determinants of population growth. It is a matter of fact that every society replenishes it self with the help of fertility. But at the same time excessive replenishing results to population explosion. It now becomes a menace and despite several efforts to stabilize the population of our country, the population is increasing by leaps and bounds causing enormous vexed problems to the peaceful existence of human society and environment. India shares more than 17% of the world population in comparison to its land area of 2. 4%. The population figure of India has already crossed one billion as evident from the absolute count, figuring to 1027 million souls according to the ever first gigantic decennial census of 2001 (Bose, 2001). Assam, being in one of the North Eastern States of India, facing an abnormal growth of population, is inhabited by a large number of identifiable and distinct ethnic groups, each of whom shows different level of fertility. Moreover, social and cultural traits, religious beliefs, customs, traditional economic pursuits as well as exposure to modernity and health care facilities differ from ethnic group- to- group and place-to-place. The Bishnupriya or Bishnupriya Manipuri is an Indo-Aryan language speaker. In Manipur the language is still spoken in Jiribam sub division. A large number of Bishnupriya Manipuri people settled in Assam decades ago particularly in the districts of Cachar, Karimganj and Hailakandi. The Bishnupriyas here are regarded as one of the major groups of people in Cachar and Karimganj district of Assam. For decades controversy over use of word â€Å"Manipuri† by Bishnupriyas as suffix has embittered the relationship between Meiteis and Bishnupriyas. Since then due to constant intimidation from Meiteis counter part , the Bishnupriya Manipuris are now trying to reassert themselves and create a niche of their own in terms of population, language, culture. RESEARCH SETTINGS:- The study area comprises of four clustered villages, which are inhabited by BishnupriyaManipuri. (Table 1. 1 shows male and female %). Few kms away from Silchar taking the path of Chencoorie over looking G. C College Road One can easily approach the villages Singari, Bhakatpur, Kalinagar, Rengti Bsati. The dominant group is Bishnupriya Manipuri. The population of the study areas is estimated to be around 25,156 (District Census 1991). Singari : Study Village Fig 1. 1 Map Showing Assam With District Cachar and Village Singari. PEOPLE:- In the present study, an attempt has been made to ascertain the fertility Performance of Bishnupriya Manipuri of Cachar District of Assam. An attempt has also been made to examine fertility differentials by some of their socio cultural factors. The Bishnupriya Manipuri people are ethnic groups that inhabit Manipur, India. There is little solid historical evidence, and various differing opinions, available on the origin of the people of Manipur. Some believe that they descended from Indo- Chinese stock with some mixture of Aryan Blood, while some scholars believe that the Manipuris are the Indo-Aryan Kashtriyas mentioned in the Mahabharatha. Another school of thought considers them to be the descendants of Kiratas. The inhabitants of Manipur have identified themselves as Manipuris for many centuries. Manipur was formerly divided into small territories, occupied by different clans, such as the Khumal, Moirang, Angom, Luwang, and Ningothouja clans, and territories were named after clan. Some of the clans had Aryan decent and some Kuki-Chin Mongoloid descent. These different clans of Aryan and Mongoloid people stayed together in Manipur for centuries. Over the course of time, the Meiteis (the Ning tauja clan) occupied all the territories towards 15th centuries AD and established a sovereign Kingdom known as Meiteis Leibak (the land of Meiteis). The land was given the name Bishnupriya Manipuri Girls Bishnupriya Marriage Fig 1. 2 showing the pictures of Bishnupriya Manipuri girls and marriage. ‘Manipuri’ towards eighteenth century, when religious development of India reached Manipur. However the Bishnupriyas were living in the valley of Manipur from centuries before the period. There are many historical accounts and works of both Indian, European scholars bear the testimony. THE BISHNUPRIYA DIASPORA:- In the early part of the 18th century, for various reasons including repeated Burmese invasions and local oppression, Bishnupriya people moved out of Manipur in large numbers to Cachar, Sylhet and Tripura. A small number of people migrated to Burma also. Those who remained in Manipur merged with the Meitei. Bishnupriya Manipuri was originally confined only to the surroundings of the Lake Loktak in Manipur. The principal localities where this language was spoken were now known as Khangabok, Heirok, Mayang Yamphal, Bishnupur, Khunan, Ningthankhong, Ngakhong, Thamna poxpi and so on. However, later great majority of speakers fled away from Manipur and took refuge in Assam, Tripura, Sylhet, and Cachar during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries due to the internal conflicts among the princes of Manipur and due to Burmese attack. Consequently, it was difficult for the small number of Bishnupriyas who remained in Manipur to retain their language because of the impact of Meitei, although Dr. G. A. Grierson, in 1891, found the existence of a considerable number of speakers in two or three villages near Bishnupur, locally known as Lanang dong (LSI, Vol-V, Page 419). The language is now spoken in parts of Assam. i)NEED FOR THE STUDY:- The data on fertility of Bishnupriya Manipuri are still unrepresented. The need of the study is to analyse and highlight the reproductive norms and see whether present scenario has direct association or bearence on fertility. It well be interesting to see the fertility behaviours of Bishnupriya Manipuri in the context of Govt. of India population policy to achieve the population norms by 2025 AD to be at par with millennium development goal. The study village is very close to the urban setting. Bearing in mind paucity of research works on demographic variable among this population, the present study has been conducted on the Indo-Mongoloid population to know the relationship of different variables of fertility. (II)OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:- Here the main objectives are to examine the relationship between the fertility and socio-economic condition which might interplay. Moreover fertility levels and trends are to be ascertained among Bishnupriya Manipuri women taking into consideration economic status, occupation status, marital status and educational attainment, contraceptive use, female autonomy. To study differential fertility on the basis of socio- economic variable by using standardized measure:- .To know the fertility behaviour of Bishnupriya Manipuri women and its differentials on the basis of 1. age at marriage. 2. age at menarche. 3. age at menopause. 4. education-fertility relationship. 5. relationship of occupation with that of fertility. 6. knowledge about family planning and use of contraceptive. To determine the age at menarche : The menarche age constitutes an important aspect of population dynamics. Wide variation in menstrual cycle is reported to be caused by the interaction of number of factors. With the onset of menarche women’s actual reproductive life begins. A woman becomes biologically fecund (Capacity of bearing child) with the onset of menstruation. To determine the age at menopause: The interval between the age at menarche and age at menopause it referred to as reproductive span. Menopause is the time of the women’s life when reproductive capacity ceases (WHO, 1996). The age at which natural menopause occurs is between the ages of 45 and 55 years for women worldwide. Age at marriage : There is a direct relation between age at marriage and fertility. This is because age at marriage marks the beginning of the social and biological entry of the woman into married life in most societies. Dhandekar (1961) writes that â€Å" Important among factors that determine the levels of human fertility are exposure or no exposure to pregnancy through marriage. The exposure begins evidently with age at marriage†. According to Busfield (1961) age at marriage varies considerably among different cultural groups. Age at marriage has been ecognized as one of the prominent determinants influencing fertility. Women getting married at an early age naturally experience more years of reproductive span and tend to have more children when they reach menopause. The reverse is true for women getting married at a later stage (NSS, 1960-61; Agarwala, 1970; Sharma and Abdul, 1990; Muthrayappa, 1998). To examine the distb. of women by age at birth of their first Child : The higher and lower age at first issue among the population correspond to their age at marriage, which occurs highest and lowest respectively. PATTERNS OF AGE SPECIFIC FERTILITY RATES : The United Nations has classified fertility patterns of countries in three easily discernible types according to age at which fertility reaches it peak: An early peak pattern in which the maximum fertility occurs in the age group 20- 24; a late peak patterns in which the age specify fertility rates for women in the age groups 20-24 and 25-29 differ only slightly. Indian fertility has more or less broad-speak pattern. Two additional measure of fertility is the general fertility rate (GFR) which represents the annual number of births 1,000 women’s age (15-49) and the crude birth rate (CBR) which represent the annual number of births per 1,000 population will also be examined. To examine relationship of with that female education attainment: According to Dreze and Murthi in India female education can tune fertility levels and trends at distinct stages. 1. Desired family size. 2. The relationship between desired family size and planned number of births and Women’s ability to achieve the planned number of births and other stages. . To determine relationship between occupation and fertility. Educational attainment is linked to better health status for women and decrease in fertility. Both health status and education are also correlated with a better quality of life and higher socio – economic status. Figure 1. 3 showing the demographic characteristics of Assam, District (2001) iii) Hypothesis: The interpretation of the data will be on the basis of demographic transition theory. According to Freedman (! 79), the theory of the demographic transition developed to explain the process by which the patterns, characteristic of modern society emerged. The theory can be stated as follows :- The immediate impact of modernization on traditional societies is felt in food supplies, education and health. Birth rate remains at high levels ; but death rates fall sharply, his produces the rapid population growth rates characteristic of the earliest stage of the transition. Moreover, traditional societies are generally characterized by high degree on reliance on family patterns of production. Also large families are given high value for both economic and status reasons. Eventually, the socio economic changes brought by modernization emphasize the importance of small families and birth rate will follow a declining pattern, which results in the declining population growth rates characteristics of MDC’s (Macionis, 1991). Research Questions: 1. Is women’s marriage associated with fertility and fertility related behaviour? More specifically, is fertility linked with contraceptive usage, the number of children born, and a women’s age at the time of first childbirth? 2. Is women’s education associated with age at marriage ? 3. Is fertility related with husband’s educational level? 4. Is fertility and its differentials pronounced among the Bishnupriya women of study village? iv) Limitations: The major and most important limitation is unavailability of census data (2001) of Assam. Assam in the abode of many tribes and numerous caste groups. Reports on fertility of caste group are few and far between. (Fig 1. 3) Small population groups like Bishnupriya Manipuri are not studied comprehensively. Sporadic Bio – Anthropological studies have been done but data are not adequate in the context of present study. Fertility is one of the three principal components of population dynamics, but data on Bishnupriya Manipuri are not available, although results of some recent works on Meitei Manipuri are met in. Changes in fertility levels over time can be tracked by examining fertility estimates from surveys and census. In case of Bishnupriya Manipuri such thing could not be followed owing to lack of data on fertility. The present studies will definitely open up a new vista in the study of fertility and its differentials among the Bishnupriya Manipuri of Cachar district. The study village (Appn. II ) comprises â€Å" The Bishnupriya Manipuri† and for decades they have been living here close to urban area like Silchar. Every now and then they interact with people of urban areas and education of late made an impact on the population specially on women folk. They are traditionally followers of Vaishnavism and ardent followers of Lord Krishna. They are satisfied with what they have and like to remain being rooted in traditional culture. Yet modernization and urbanization are likely to play key role in shaping the future population. So a framework has been selected which will test factors affecting fertility behaviour of Bishnupriya Manipuri women. In this study, fertility rate differentials examine the impact of economic and social development that are characterized by women’s education, marriage, childbirth, occupation and use of contraceptive. v) Chapterization : It introduces to the study of fertility and its differentials ; fertility behaviour and its implications with reference to works done by different authorities at different levels in different countries. Summing up the whole idea a passionate view has been taken to work out a model for present study and thereby linkages at different levels were scertained. India’s population projection envisages on fertility rate at replacement level to gain control over depleted economic condition. Also, a country cannot prosper without control over its ever increasing population size. Need for the study is to examine the reproductive behaviours of the Bishnupriya women as those studies will help the authorities to choose ways and means to curb the menacing population growth causing enormous problems and anxieties in the society. This chapter 1 looks into the hypothesis and limitations of the study. Chapter 2 takes note of related literature and reviews and also tries to examine the authenticity of the present study. Chapter 3 elaborates the methodology used in the present study. The definition and various research related measures are spelled out as far as practicable. Chapter 4 deals with the results and discussion of the present study. Here results and comparisons are viewed with reference to the works and results of different authorities at this level. Chapter5 states findings, conclusions suggestion for further research. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In the early days ‘Population Control’ appeared as an emerging issue. After that malleable approach emerged with the slogan â€Å"Development is the main Contraceptive† the focus shifted to social development and it had gained a great place in both to better living condition and to reducing population growth. Many researchers argued that India is not a model of social development. Contrary to this many states in India are showing progressive picture in terms of fertility decline. Its progress owes to the improvement of female literacy and declining infant mortality and more so other socio-economic indicators are not overlooked. The appearance of differentials in fertility by socio-economic development is a sensitive indicator of the early phase of fertility decline, (U. N. 1987). The United Nation (1987) defines development as â€Å"A multidimensional phenomenon, which includes level of economic production, education, provision of health service, status of women nutritional status of population, quality housing, distribution of goods and services, transport system and access to communication network. From the above definition it is clear that development includes both social and economic development. Caldwell, Reddy (1982), Dyson and Maore (1983) and Malhotra, Vanneman and Kishore (1995) have added cultural dimension in understanding fertility differential in India. After the introduction of family planning programmes in the country, it was thought that economic growth would automatically reduce poverty and slow the growth of population. Several theories have been put forward in terms of fertility transition in different regions in the world and the mechanism, which reduces fertility levels, and differtials based on changes in economic and social structure of the population were brought in to the discussion. Demand and supply theories and their application particularly to less developed countries have been criticized with several logical arguments (Bongaarts and Menken, 1983; Lee and Bulatao 1983). Later, a substantial part of social science literature on modernization and its impacts on fertility deals with the lack of synchronization in the evolution of the economic, political and cultural subsystem (Lesthaeghe, 180,83. Livi Bacci, 1986). Cald Well’s assertion that a maximization of fertility is rational and conscious choice in traditional societies has sufficient evidence for reconsideration but in sufficient to sustain more precise conclusions. More so, difference and changes in the level of natural fertility appear to be largely uncorrelated to the economic factor (Clealand and Wilson; 1987) Nag (1980) has described modernization and fertility is well sphere in population dynamics. He has pointed out modernization; spread of education, improvement in health and nutrition, the emergence of secular norms and beliefs can reduce fertility. More specifically the reduction in mortality has been measured as leading agents in the rising natural fertility in several populations (Chandrasekaran, 1955; Srinivasan and Jejeebhoy, 1980; Nag, 1985; Srinivasan et. al, 1985; Easterlin, (1985); Cain (1983) they had shown clear correction of fertility and land use pattern. Khan (1981) has observed that urban areas accommodate the centers for educational, employment, transportation, better health services and are seen as a salient feature of fertility reduction. According to Dreze and Murthi in India female education can tune fertility levels and trends at district stages: 1. Desired family size, 2. The relationship between desired family size and planned number of births and Women’s ability to achieve the planned number of Births and other stages that indicate the ability of educated women to translate their inspiration in to reality. In another studies P. N Mari Bhat and A. V Francis Zavier (1995) had shown that the religious disparities also play an important role in decline or increasing fertility means high fertility rate in the Muslim population compared to the Hindu population. Fertility transition in the Indian States is on progress since the 1990’s. Data collected from Sample Registration System (SRS) indicate that the crude Birth rate and the total fertility rate declined respectively from 31 and 4. 0 in 1991 to 24 and 2. in 2004. This trend points to the fact that bulk of fertility decline is now occurring among uneducated women. This transition is being driven mainly by the increasing contraceptive prevalence rate among uneducated women (Bhat, 2002; McNay et, al, 2003). Based on the framework of fertility determinants, a major body of past literature demonstrated evidence of early and significant fertility reduction among educated and socio-economically advanced women (Caldwell et, al, 1982; Coal e and Watkins, 1986). However, recent literature recognizes that the fertility reduction among uneducated women is a complimentary phenomenon to the early phase of fertility decline among educated women (McNay et, al, 2003; AroKiasamy et, al, 2004). Reproduction high or low levels, is so important to the family and the society everywhere that its level is more or less controlled by the cultural and religious norms about family size and related behaviors such as age at marriage, time of first intercourse, use of contraception and abortion. As described by Freedman (1963) in each society the norms about these vital are consistent with social institution in which they are deeply embedded. In a traditional, closely-knit society changes in fertility are unlikely to occur without prior, at least, simultaneous changes in the institutions. Several authors’, (Dyson and Moore; 1983; Bose, 1992) have carried out studies to search for the factors responsible for regional variations in fertility in India. Assam, one of the North-Eastern States in India now being over burdened with explosive growth of population, is inhabited by large number of ethnic groups, each of them showing different levels of fertility and contraceptive behaviour. Thus present study holds key to peep in to problems caused by population explosion. In addition, it is argued in many studies (Goldscheider and Uhlenberg, 1969; Robert, Roberts and Lee, 1974; Sly, 1970) that in a traditional ethnic group, social norms and behaviors tend to be guided by the relative position of a particular community in the social stratification system. The view point first achieved popularity some years ago, but then fell out of favour and is only now reemerging as a major research issue. Most studies have concentrated on major groups. Marginal groups were completely ignored. The Bishnupriya Manipuris of Assam thus evokes much interest to the demographers. Indeed this study would open the floodgate and the concerned authorities would begin to show interest in the study of marginal groups and small ethnic groups which are too many in this part of N. E India. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY : The present study which aims at understanding the fertility and its differential among the Bishnupriya Manipuris of Cachar District, is based on data collected from three villages namely, Singari, Bhakatpur and Kalinjar. Altogether 254 households were surveyed for census enumeration using structured schedule. The data comprise information like name, Age, Sex, Clan, Marital Status, Educational attainment, Occupational status, Age at marriage, Age at menarche, Age at menopause, attitude towards family planning and family size, the proximate determinants of fertility, children ever orn and their survival status, live births in the last two years, sex preference and female autonomy. Qualitative data were collected through in depth interview with village heads and other persons and through several group discussion and rigorous fieldwork. The overall theoretical framework used in this study was followed from Freedman’s (1963) Concept that normative values have a key role in explaini ng differentials in fertility. The framework shows hypothetical relationship between fertility and other variables that influence fertility outcome. The relationship between the variable is conceptualized by first making a distinction between the proximate variable (Bongaarts 1982) and the contextual feature determining fertility keeping in mind the current movement for the cultural revival among many indigenous groups in North-Eastern India, ‘minority groups status’ (Gold Scheider and Uhlenberg 1969; Robert, Roberts and Lee 1973; Johnson 1970; Sly 1970) is included as an important contextual variable in the frame work. For a detail fertility survey, a random sample of 417 ever married women were interviewed using structured interview schedule. BASIC MEASURE OF FERTILITY USED IN ANALYSIS On the basis of data collected from vital registration, census and surveys – different types of fertility may be computed. The first type of measure being termed as ‘Period’ measures are related to given period and based on data referring to that period. In the present study the following measures were followed. The period type of measure of fertility refers to the reproductive performance of women up to certain period. The question on â€Å"the number of children ever born† is asked. The third type of measure of fertility attempts to measure fertility indirectly on the basis of the age and sex distribution of the population obtained from a census. Measures based on performance during 1 year. THE CRUDE BIRTH RATE:- The crude birth rate is the ratio of the total registered live births in a year in a particular area to the total mid-year population of that area Multiplied by 1000. B — X K, where P is the total live births during a year. P is the total population and K is 1000. THE GENERAL FERTILITY RATE:- It is defined as the ratio of total live births in same. specified year in a particularly area to the number of women in the child bearing age, multiplied by, 1000. It is computed as follows. B — XK, where P B is the number of live births during a year. P is the mid year population 1 year of women between the age of 15 and 44 and 45 and K is 1000. Why do we need them? †¢ For comparisons in fertility behavior at different ages. †¢ For comparisons of fertility at different age over time. For comparison of fertility across countries / populations. The average number of children that would be born to a woman by the time she ended childbearing if she were to pass through all her child bearing years confirming to the age specific fertility rates of a given year. Symbolically, TFR= Sum of ASFRS ( f x ) f x ASFRS are for single year age. TFR= 5 X sum of ASFR ( f x to x+5) if ASFR s are for 5 years age groups. CHILD WOMEN RATIO:- The measure commonly used is the ratio of children under 5 years old to women of child bearing age, referred to as the â€Å"general fertility ratio or the ratio of children to women or the child women ratio† This measure is computed by dividing the number of children under 5 years old in the population by the number of women 15 to 49 years old. The computation formula is :- P 0 – 4 —X 1000 P + 15 – 49 Where, P 0 – 4 is the number of children under 5 years old and P + 15 49 is the number of women between exact ages 15 and 4 CHILDREN EVER BORN:- The information on the number of children ever born is collected from ever married or currently married women through fertility surveys. The present age of the mother is also available from the some sources. By cross classifying the age of the currently married women and the number of children ever born to her, it is possible to compute the average number of children ever born per currently married women. This measure is based on the actual reproductive performance of a group of women and provides information on the average number of children born performed women upto a certain age, or if the group has passed out of the reproduction age group, by the end of the child bearing period. When the average number of children born per women is computed for those who have crossed the reproductive ages, the measure is known as. COMPLETED FERTILITY:- Parity Progression Ratios:- An elaborate measure of the chance of having a child is the parity progression ratio by Henry . The parity progression ratio ‘a’ for a women is defined as the probability that a women of parity ‘I’ will have at least one more child. Description of variables considered are as follows: Education is considered as a variable being classified into different categories basing on the educational status. Education is included in the study as it is education which raises and spreads awareness to come in terms with changing view of the world and one can go beyond one’s own realm to tread the path of glory. It is the level of education which enhances one’s perception to modern ways of living and approach to health care facilities and fosters role-relationship of the males and female in the process of family building. Occupation of both male and female affect the fertility behaviour. They are: ? Illiterate. ? Literate up to primary level, ? Literate above primary but less than secondary level completed, ? High school completed. ? Graduation completed, and. ? Post graduation. Occupation of husbands is classified into 7 categories depending upon one’s main activity. The different categories are:- Cultivators. Agriculture labour. Live Stock. Handicraft. Trade and Commerce. Service (Govt. / Private). Others. It is often agreed that improvement in the economic condition retards fertility. It has been found no strong performance for sons over daughters among the people and the preferential behaviour has stimulated couples for having more children. Age at marriage of wife in addition to describing the length of exposer for child bearing is also an indicator of modernity. In the absence of any protective measure against the child bearing, the earlier the age at marriage of wife, the higher the number of children ever born to the couples. Adoption of contraceptive device, modern or traditional intended for temporary or permanent contract of child birth has direct bearing on fertility. Immunization, which is assumed to assure parents of providing safe guard against many fatal diseases acts as a natural determent to high fertility. Age Specific Fertility Rates: The age specific fertility rates are computed as follows:- bi X K Pi Where, bi is the number of live births to mothers of a specified age group in the population during a year. Pi is the mid-year female population in the same age group; and k is 1000. Total fertility rate- the total fertility rate is the sum of the age specific fertility rates of women in each five-year age group from 15 to 44 or 49. Contraceptive practice is taken from the couple’s response to the question whether either both of them ever adopted any contraceptive measure, modern or traditional for spacing, controlling or stopping childbirth. STATUS OF WOMEN:- Among Bishnupriya Manipuri, son’s preference is not existed in a dominant way. Though they prefer son still they hold woman in high esteem and girls are left in wilderness either. The study village shows sex ratio 940 (female per thousand males). The Bishnupriyas are ardent followers of â€Å"Krishna† and young girls and elderly women every year religiously perform â€Å"Rash Leela†. Hence girls are always held in reverence and not treated as a mere sex tool and performer of domestic chores. The women actively take part in economic pursuits. Every house of the village is adorned with at least one heirloom. The girls are weavers and they weave garments of daily use. The women are not subjected to subordination and they participate in every sphere of socio – economic activities. They have their say in decision making and girls education is given due importance. In course of fieldwork it was observed that females do perform small errands and others right from sweeping, washing, arvesting, cleaning and also doing official work. Most of them raise vegetables in nearby vegetable plot and out of which they meet up everyday needs. Fertility behaviour of Bishnupriya Manipuri women is definitely controlled by the status in the society they hold. The results obtained from the village studies reflect confirm the hypothesis held earlier. CHAPTER 4 Results and Discussion : Study of fertility differentials and analysis of factors related with them are of immense importance. Household occupation has been previously take into consideration, during National Sample Survey, for studying into effect on fertility pattern. That study indicated that the fertility performance of the agriculture class at successive year after marriage stage was slightly higher than non agricultural class. Similar occupational differential was also observed in Poona City, fertility decreasing from manual labour to non manual labour and from non- manual to higher professional and salaried employees (N. C Das; A Das Gupta 1974). Various studies done on employed and unemployed women show demonstration and behavioural differences between the two categories. In one study on women from different employment status, employed women were found to report healthier lifestyles and more health awareness than their unemployed counterparts. One change brought about by increased health awareness was that they had about half the previous pregnancies reported by housewives (Najman J. M, V,Williams, G. M, Anderson M. J,(1989). Economic activity outside the house evokes an enlightening and increased awareness among women, which results in healthy life style behaviour, as observed by Najman. It also increases the desire and responsibility to limit the size of the family. Srivastava observed that women working in white collar professions had 34. 9 percentages lower fertility than non-working women. In a study done on differential fertility in Central India the mean number of children ever born were 4. for unemployed women and 5 for employed women. The difference between their averages remained the same when they were equated on the basis of their percentage age. But the mean fertility in the upper age group, i. e. 35 years and above, was less in the employed than unemployed women E. D. Driver (1963). Distribution according to age in the present study shows lower mean fertility in the employed women of all the age groups. Fertility differential according to socio economic variables wer e also studied here. Education affects fertility in many complex ways by affecting proximate fertility determinants. Education of wife has been considered to be a more important factor in this respect than of husband. Mean fertility has been shown to have an inverse relation with education of wife in many studies. Age at menarche ; One of the important biological determinants of fertility shows a range varying between 10-18 years among the Girls of 24 Countries of the World (Shah, 1958) . Bundi Tribe of Highland, New Guinea records the latest age at menarche. On records the girls from this tribe experience the latest mean age at menarche of 18 years (Malcolm, 1970). The intervention of genetical and environmental factors influencing the age at menarche of a population is well documented (Johnson, 1974; Barry, 1988: Janner and Keeffe, 1967). These are reports on the variation of the age at menarche In hot countries 13 years, temperate zones -14. 3 years and cold countries-15. years (Bhasin and Bhasin, 1993), 12. 5 years and 14 years for girls of middle and lower socio-economic classes respectively (Johnston, 1974 and Eveleth and Tanner, 1976). Studies also show that positive secular trend in age at menarche is occurring in various parts of the world (Itoshi and Kouchi; 1981; Tanner and Keeffe, 1976; Barry, 1988). The table 4. 1 shows the age of wife distribution of age at menarche of Bishnupriya Manipuri women. At the age of 11,12,13,14 years, (the highest percentage s 7. 67, 16. 0, 64. 26, 8. 39) of women are found to have their first menstruation. The mean age of menarche is 12. 84 + 0. 049. Table 4. 1 Distribution of Woman according to Age at Menarche |Age at menarche (in yr) |Number of Women |Percentage | |11 |32 |7. 7 | |12 |68 |16. | |13 |268 |64. 3 | |14 |35 |8. 4 | |15 |8 |1. 9 | |16 |6 |1. | |17 |- |- | |18 |- |- | |Total |417 |100 | Mean  ± S. E = 12. 84  ± 0. 04 , S. D = 1. 01 Montego (1955) is of the opinion that the menarche before 12 years of the Age is abnormal. The mean menarcheal age of the present study group (12. 84  ± 0. 04) is relatively low compared to the Meitei (13. 60 + 0. 10 years) (Jibon Kumar Singh 2006). The mean age at menarche among Assamese girls (comprising Brahmin, Kalita and Kaibarta), is 12. 23 + 0. 19 years among Brahmin girls, 11. 96 + 0. 16 years among Kalita and 11. 92 + 0. 08 years among Kaibrata . The Bishnupriya Manipuri women come closer to Assamese girls. The other populations of N. E India like Kabui, the Pangals show (15. 40 + o. 23 years) (14. 40 + 0. 08 years) respectively ( Jibon Kumar Singh 2006). The mean age at menarche among Brahmin girls is 13. 85 + 0. 12) and for Rajput girls is (13. 85 + 0. 12). Mehta et, al (1991) observed that the onset of menarche is significantly delayed and Renuka (1971), Dane et,al (1992), and Chatterjee and Mandal (1994) two reached similar conclusion that the girls belonging high socio-economic status attain poverty earlier. Age at marriage Distribution of women by age at marriage is shown in the table(4. 2). Age at marriage is one of the important determinate of fertility it is the beginning of the reproductive span of a women’s life. Thus any change at marriage can influence in increasing or decreasing the reproductive life. The low age at marriage of the female increases fertility and mortality by providing longer duration and higher increases of maternal and infant mortality (Bhattacherjee, Singh and singh – 1994) The differential in age at marriage between states shows that there is a clear cut difference between the states of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh on one hand with lower age at marriage and relatively higher age at marriage in Orissa, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. With regard to place of residence, irrespective of the state the general trend is that among urban areas higher proportion of marriage are taking place in the higher age group. Hence it can be hypothesized that early marriage is a rural phenomena. The roles of cultural factors such as religion, caste also influence marriage behaviour in developing countries. Female literacy and education are considered to be important determinants of age at marriage of female, particularly in developing countries. In western countries the level of female literacy is not very much associated with age at marriage because there is small variance in female literacy across the countries. In India, state level studies reveal that female literacy can alone explain nearly 70 percent 1984). It is seen that early age at marriage is higher in case of non-literates in comparison to literates. It is observed that in case of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh , 73 percent women married less than or equal to 15 years, followed by 40 in Orissa, 65 in Maharashtra and 30 percent in Tamil Nadu. Like education employment also affects the female age at marriage in India. Some studies have taken three variables of working status of women in assessing their impact on female age at marriage. These are female work participation rate, current employment status of married women and work before marriage (Bhagat, 2002). There is a relationship between female work participation rate and mean age at marriage. Earlier studies have found that there is almost no relationship between female work participation rate and mean age at marriage of female in different divisions of Uttar Pradesh (Hussain, 1968). Since Malaker (1978) has analyzed the data at the combined level of rural and urban areas, the negative association found by him may not be true for urban areas where females are largely employed in service sector. Among those who are working 71 percent in Rajasthan and 76 percent in Uttar Pradesh were married less than or equal to 15 years compare to lower Proportion in Orissa, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu are married at the age of 16 years and above. Standard of living also affects the age at marriage. Standard of living is categorized as low, medium and high. It is found that higher age at marriage take place in case of high standard of living. Similarly media exposure, partially exposure and fully exposure. Those who are not exposed to media, they are marrying at earlier ages in comparison to those with fully exposure. With regards to total children ever born, those who have four or more children. Higher proportion gave got married less than or equal to 15 years of age. Among those who have child loss they have got married at earlier ages. The mean age at marriage in different age groups among the Bishnupriya Manipuri is presented (Table-4. 2). The mean age at marriage ranges between16. 5 years to 18. 76 years, the highest being in the age group 35-39 (mean age 19. 69). The results exhibit that females generally marry at the age group 15-19. The mean age at marriage is found to increase gradually from the lower to the higher age groups. The highest mean age at marriage is observed in the age group 35-39 years. |TABLE – 4. | |DISTRIBUTION OF WOMEN ACCORDING TO AGE AT MARRIAGE | | | | | | | | | |AGE AT MARRIAGE IN YEARS | | | |No Of Women | | | |by percentage | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Mean age at | | | | | | | | |age in years | |12 | |13 | |14 | |15 | |16 | |17 | |18 | |19 | |20 | |21 | |22 | |23 | |24 | |25 | |26 | |27 | |All | |Marriage | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |15-19 | |- | |- | |- | |2 | |2 | |8 | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |12 | |16. | | | | | | | | | |20-24 | |- | |- | |3 | |4 | |3 | |7 | |8 | |3 | |1 | |3 | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |32 | |17. 8 | | | | | | | | | |25-29 | |- | |- | |3 | |3 | |4 |10 | |5 | |12 | |15 | |14 | |- | |2 | |6 | |- | |- | |- | |74 | |19. 3 | | | | | | | | | |30-34 | |- | |- | |4 | |6 | |5 | |6 | |6 | |20 | |22 | |6 | |3 | |4 | |3 | |1 | |- | |- | |86 | |19. 3 | | | | | | | | | |35-39 | |- | |- | |4 | |5 | |4 | |7 | |8 | |21 | |20 | |8 | |8 | |1 | |- | |4 | |3 | |4 | |97 | |19. 69 | | | | | | | | | |40-44 | |- | |- | |3 |4 | |3 | |7 | |9 | |15 | |8 | |2 | |5 | |4 | |3 | |1 | |1 | |1 | |66 | |19. 4 | | | | | | | | | |45-49 | |- | |- | |4 | |3 | |5 | |8 | |11 | |5 | |2 | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |- | |38 | |1 7. 1 | | | | | | | | | |50+ | |- | |- | |4 | |2 | |6 | |-